Chapter 26. Arrays

Newer versions of Bash support one-dimensional arrays. Array elements may be initialized with the variable[xx] notation. Alternatively, a script may introduce the entire array by an explicit declare -a variable statement. To dereference (find the contents of) an array element, use curly bracket notation, that is, ${variable[xx]}.

Example 26-1. Simple array usage

#!/bin/bash


area[11]=23
area[13]=37
area[51]=UFOs

# Array members need not be consecutive or contiguous.

# Some members of the array can be left uninitialized.
# Gaps in the array are o.k.


echo -n "area[11] = "
echo ${area[11]}    #  {curly brackets} needed

echo -n "area[13] = "
echo ${area[13]}

echo "Contents of area[51] are ${area[51]}."

# Contents of uninitialized array variable print blank.
echo -n "area[43] = "
echo ${area[43]}
echo "(area[43] unassigned)"

echo

# Sum of two array variables assigned to third
area[5]=`expr ${area[11]} + ${area[13]}`
echo "area[5] = area[11] + area[13]"
echo -n "area[5] = "
echo ${area[5]}

area[6]=`expr ${area[11]} + ${area[51]}`
echo "area[6] = area[11] + area[51]"
echo -n "area[6] = "
echo ${area[6]}
# This fails because adding an integer to a string is not permitted.

echo; echo; echo

# -----------------------------------------------------------------
# Another array, "area2".
# Another way of assigning array variables...
# array_name=( XXX YYY ZZZ ... )

area2=( zero one two three four )

echo -n "area2[0] = "
echo ${area2[0]}
# Aha, zero-based indexing (first element of array is [0], not [1]).

echo -n "area2[1] = "
echo ${area2[1]}    # [1] is second element of array.
# -----------------------------------------------------------------

echo; echo; echo

# -----------------------------------------------
# Yet another array, "area3".
# Yet another way of assigning array variables...
# array_name=([xx]=XXX [yy]=YYY ...)

area3=([17]=seventeen [24]=twenty-four)

echo -n "area3[17] = "
echo ${area3[17]}

echo -n "area3[24] = "
echo ${area3[24]}
# -----------------------------------------------

exit 0

Note

Bash permits array operations on variables, even if the variables are not explicitly declared as arrays.

string=abcABC123ABCabc
echo ${string[@]}               # abcABC123ABCabc
echo ${string[*]}               # abcABC123ABCabc
echo ${string[0]}               # abcABC123ABCabc
echo ${string[1]}               # No output!
                                # Why?
echo ${#string[@]}              # 1
                                # One element in the array.
                                # The string itself.

# Thank you, Michael Zick, for pointing this out.
Once again this demonstrates that Bash variables are untyped.

Example 26-2. Formatting a poem

#!/bin/bash
# poem.sh

# Lines of the poem (single stanza).
Line[1]="I do not know which to prefer,"
Line[2]="The beauty of inflections"
Line[3]="Or the beauty of innuendoes,"
Line[4]="The blackbird whistling"
Line[5]="Or just after."

# Attribution.
Attrib[1]=" Wallace Stevens"
Attrib[2]="\"Thirteen Ways of Looking at a Blackbird\""

for index in 1 2 3 4 5    # Five lines.
do
  printf "     %s\n" "${Line[index]}"
done

for index in 1 2          # Two attribution lines.
do
  printf "          %s\n" "${Attrib[index]}"
done

exit 0

Array variables have a syntax all their own, and even standard Bash commands and operators have special options adapted for array use.

array=( zero one two three four five )

echo ${array[0]}       #  zero
echo ${array:0}        #  zero
                       #  Parameter expansion of first element.
echo ${array:1}        #  ero
                       #  Parameter expansion of first element,
                       #+ starting at position #1 (2nd character).

echo ${#array}         #  4
                       #  Length of first element of array.



array2=( [0]="first element" [1]="second element" [3]="fourth element" )

echo ${array2[0]}      # first element
echo ${array2[1]}      # second element
echo ${array2[2]}      #
                       # Skipped in initialization, therefore null.
echo ${array2[3]}      # fourth element

In an array context, some Bash builtins have a slightly altered meaning. For example, unset deletes array elements, or even an entire array.

Example 26-3. Some special properties of arrays

#!/bin/bash

declare -a colors
# Permits declaring an array without specifying its size.

echo "Enter your favorite colors (separated from each other by a space)."

read -a colors    # Enter at least 3 colors to demonstrate features below.
#  Special option to 'read' command,
#+ allowing assignment of elements in an array.

echo

element_count=${#colors[@]}
# Special syntax to extract number of elements in array.
#     element_count=${#colors[*]} works also.
#
#  The "@" variable allows word splitting within quotes
#+ (extracts variables separated by whitespace).

index=0

while [ "$index" -lt "$element_count" ]
do    # List all the elements in the array.
  echo ${colors[$index]}
  let "index = $index + 1"
done
# Each array element listed on a separate line.
# If this is not desired, use  echo -n "${colors[$index]} "
#
# Doing it with a "for" loop instead:
#   for i in "${colors[@]}"
#   do
#     echo "$i"
#   done
# (Thanks, S.C.)

echo

# Again, list all the elements in the array, but using a more elegant method.
  echo ${colors[@]}          # echo ${colors[*]} also works.

echo

# The "unset" command deletes elements of an array, or entire array.
unset colors[1]              # Remove 2nd element of array.
                             # Same effect as   colors[1]=
echo  ${colors[@]}           # List array again, missing 2nd element.

unset colors                 # Delete entire array.
                             #  unset colors[*] and
                             #+ unset colors[@] also work.
echo; echo -n "Colors gone."
echo ${colors[@]}            # List array again, now empty.

exit 0

As seen in the previous example, either ${array_name[@]} or ${array_name[*]} refers to all the elements of the array. Similarly, to get a count of the number of elements in an array, use either ${#array_name[@]} or ${#array_name[*]}. ${#array_name} is the length (number of characters) of ${array_name[0]}, the first element of the array.

Example 26-4. Of empty arrays and empty elements

#!/bin/bash
# empty-array.sh

#  Thanks to Stephane Chazelas for the original example,
#+ and to Michael Zick for extending it.


# An empty array is not the same as an array with empty elements.

array0=( first second third )
array1=( '' )   # "array1" has one empty element.
array2=( )      # No elements... "array2" is empty.

echo
ListArray()
{
echo
echo "Elements in array0:  ${array0[@]}"
echo "Elements in array1:  ${array1[@]}"
echo "Elements in array2:  ${array2[@]}"
echo
echo "Length of first element in array0 = ${#array0}"
echo "Length of first element in array1 = ${#array1}"
echo "Length of first element in array2 = ${#array2}"
echo
echo "Number of elements in array0 = ${#array0[*]}"  # 3
echo "Number of elements in array1 = ${#array1[*]}"  # 1  (surprise!)
echo "Number of elements in array2 = ${#array2[*]}"  # 0
}

# ===================================================================

ListArray

# Try extending those arrays

# Adding an element to an array.
array0=( "${array0[@]}" "new1" )
array1=( "${array1[@]}" "new1" )
array2=( "${array2[@]}" "new1" )

ListArray

# or
array0[${#array0[*]}]="new2"
array1[${#array1[*]}]="new2"
array2[${#array2[*]}]="new2"

ListArray

# When extended as above; arrays are 'stacks'
# The above is the 'push'
# The stack 'height' is:
height=${#array2[@]}
echo
echo "Stack height for array2 = $height"

# The 'pop' is:
unset array2[${#array2[@]}-1]	# Arrays are zero based
height=${#array2[@]}
echo
echo "POP"
echo "New stack height for array2 = $height"

ListArray

# List only 2nd and 3rd elements of array0
from=1		# Zero based numbering
to=2		#
declare -a array3=( ${array0[@]:1:2} )
echo
echo "Elements in array3:  ${array3[@]}"

# Works like a string (array of characters)
# Try some other "string" forms

# Replacement
declare -a array4=( ${array0[@]/second/2nd} )
echo
echo "Elements in array4:  ${array4[@]}"

# Replace all matching wildcarded string
declare -a array5=( ${array0[@]//new?/old} )
echo
echo "Elements in array5:  ${array5[@]}"

# Just when you are getting the feel for this...
declare -a array6=( ${array0[@]#*new} )
echo # This one might surprise you
echo "Elements in array6:  ${array6[@]}"

declare -a array7=( ${array0[@]#new1} )
echo # After array6 this should not be a surprise
echo "Elements in array7:  ${array7[@]}"

# Which looks a lot like...
declare -a array8=( ${array0[@]/new1/} )
echo
echo "Elements in array8:  ${array8[@]}"

#  So what can one say about this?

#  The string operations are performed on
#+ each of the elements in var[@] in succession.
#  Therefore : BASH supports string vector operations
#  If the result is a zero length string, that
#+ element disappears in the resulting assignment.

#  Question, are those strings hard or soft quotes?

zap='new*'
declare -a array9=( ${array0[@]/$zap/} )
echo
echo "Elements in array9:  ${array9[@]}"

# Just when you thought you where still in Kansas...
declare -a array10=( ${array0[@]#$zap} )
echo
echo "Elements in array10:  ${array10[@]}"

# Compare array7 with array10
# Compare array8 with array9

# Answer, must be soft quotes.

exit 0

The relationship of ${array_name[@]} and ${array_name[*]} is analogous to that between $@ and $*. This powerful array notation has a number of uses.

# Copying an array.
array2=( "${array1[@]}" )
# or
array2="${array1[@]}"

# Adding an element to an array.
array=( "${array[@]}" "new element" )
# or
array[${#array[*]}]="new element"

# Thanks, S.C.

Tip

The array=( element1 element2 ... elementN ) initialization operation, with the help of command substitution, makes it possible to load the contents of a text file into an array.

#!/bin/bash

filename=sample_file

#            cat sample_file
#
#            1 a b c
#            2 d e fg


declare -a array1

array1=( `cat "$filename" | tr '\n' ' '`)  # Loads contents
                                           # of $filename into array1.
#         list file to stdout.
#                           change linefeeds in file to spaces.

echo ${array1[@]}            # List the array.
#                              1 a b c 2 d e fg
#
#  Each whitespace-separated "word" in the file
#+ has been assigned to an element of the array.

element_count=${#array1[*]}
echo $element_count          # 8

Clever scripting makes it possible to add array operations.

Example 26-5. Copying and concatenating arrays

#! /bin/bash
# CopyArray.sh
#
# This script written by Michael Zick.
# Used here with permission.

#  How-To "Pass by Name & Return by Name"
#+ or "Building your own assignment statement".


CpArray_Mac() {

# Assignment Command Statement Builder

    echo -n 'eval '
    echo -n "$2"                    # Destination name
    echo -n '=( ${'
    echo -n "$1"                    # Source name
    echo -n '[@]} )'

# That could all be a single command.
# Matter of style only.
}

declare -f CopyArray                # Function "Pointer"
CopyArray=CpArray_Mac               # Statement Builder

Hype()
{

# Hype the array named $1.
# (Splice it together with array containing "Really Rocks".)
# Return in array named $2.

    local -a TMP
    local -a hype=( Really Rocks )

    $($CopyArray $1 TMP)
    TMP=( ${TMP[@]} ${hype[@]} )
    $($CopyArray TMP $2)
}

declare -a before=( Advanced Bash Scripting )
declare -a after

echo "Array Before = ${before[@]}"

Hype before after

echo "Array After = ${after[@]}"

# Too much hype?

echo "What ${after[@]:3:2}?"

declare -a modest=( ${after[@]:2:1} ${after[@]:3:2} )
#                    ---- substring extraction ----

echo "Array Modest = ${modest[@]}"

# What happened to 'before' ?

echo "Array Before = ${before[@]}"

exit 0

--

Arrays permit deploying old familiar algorithms as shell scripts. Whether this is necessarily a good idea is left to the reader to decide.

Example 26-6. An old friend: The Bubble Sort

#!/bin/bash
# bubble.sh: Bubble sort, of sorts.

# Recall the algorithm for a bubble sort. In this particular version...

#  With each successive pass through the array to be sorted,
#+ compare two adjacent elements, and swap them if out of order.
#  At the end of the first pass, the "heaviest" element has sunk to bottom.
#  At the end of the second pass, the next "heaviest" one has sunk next to bottom.
#  And so forth.
#  This means that each successive pass needs to traverse less of the array.
#  You will therefore notice a speeding up in the printing of the later passes.


exchange()
{
  # Swaps two members of the array.
  local temp=${Countries[$1]} #  Temporary storage
                              #+ for element getting swapped out.
  Countries[$1]=${Countries[$2]}
  Countries[$2]=$temp

  return
}

declare -a Countries  #  Declare array,
                      #+ optional here since it's initialized below.

#  Is it permissable to split an array variable over multiple lines
#+ using an escape (\)?
#  Yes.

Countries=(Netherlands Ukraine Zaire Turkey Russia Yemen Syria \
Brazil Argentina Nicaragua Japan Mexico Venezuela Greece England \
Israel Peru Canada Oman Denmark Wales France Kenya \
Xanadu Qatar Liechtenstein Hungary)

# "Xanadu" is the mythical place where, according to Coleridge,
#+ Kubla Khan did a pleasure dome decree.


clear                      # Clear the screen to start with.

echo "0: ${Countries[*]}"  # List entire array at pass 0.

number_of_elements=${#Countries[@]}
let "comparisons = $number_of_elements - 1"

count=1 # Pass number.

while [ "$comparisons" -gt 0 ]          # Beginning of outer loop
do

  index=0  # Reset index to start of array after each pass.

  while [ "$index" -lt "$comparisons" ] # Beginning of inner loop
  do
    if [ ${Countries[$index]} \> ${Countries[`expr $index + 1`]} ]
    #  If out of order...
    #  Recalling that \> is ASCII comparison operator
    #+ within single brackets.

    #  if [[ ${Countries[$index]} > ${Countries[`expr $index + 1`]} ]]
    #+ also works.
    then
      exchange $index `expr $index + 1`  # Swap.
    fi
    let "index += 1"
  done # End of inner loop


let "comparisons -= 1" #  Since "heaviest" element bubbles to bottom,
                       #+ we need do one less comparison each pass.

echo
echo "$count: ${Countries[@]}"  # Print resultant array at end of each pass.
echo
let "count += 1"                # Increment pass count.

done                            # End of outer loop
                                # All done.

exit 0

--

Is it possible to nest arrays within arrays?

#!/bin/bash
# Nested array.

# Michael Zick provided this example.

AnArray=( $(ls --inode --ignore-backups --almost-all \
	--directory --full-time --color=none --time=status \
	--sort=time -l ${PWD} ) )  # Commands and options.

# Spaces are significant . . . and don't quote anything in the above.

SubArray=( ${AnArray[@]:11:1}  ${AnArray[@]:6:5} )
# Array has two elements, each of which is in turn an array.

echo "Current directory and date of last status change:"
echo "${SubArray[@]}"

exit 0

--

Embedded arrays in combination with indirect references create some fascinating possibilities

Example 26-7. Embedded arrays and indirect references

#!/bin/bash
# embedded-arrays.sh
# Embedded arrays and indirect references.

# This script by Dennis Leeuw.
# Used with permission.
# Modified by document author.


ARRAY1=(
        VAR1_1=value11
        VAR1_2=value12
        VAR1_3=value13
)

ARRAY2=(
        VARIABLE="test"
        STRING="VAR1=value1 VAR2=value2 VAR3=value3"
        ARRAY21=${ARRAY1[*]}
)       # Embed ARRAY1 within this second array.

function print () {
        OLD_IFS="$IFS"
        IFS=$'\n'       #  To print each array element
                        #+ on a separate line.
        TEST1="ARRAY2[*]"
        local ${!TEST1} # See what happens if you delete this line.
        #  Indirect reference.
	#  This makes the components of $TEST1
	#+ accessible to this function.


        #  Let's see what we've got so far.
        echo
        echo "\$TEST1 = $TEST1"       #  Just the name of the variable.
        echo; echo
        echo "{\$TEST1} = ${!TEST1}"  #  Contents of the variable.
                                      #  That's what an indirect
                                      #+ reference does.
        echo
        echo "-------------------------------------------"; echo
        echo


        # Print variable
        echo "Variable VARIABLE: $VARIABLE"

        # Print a string element
        IFS="$OLD_IFS"
        TEST2="STRING[*]"
        local ${!TEST2}      # Indirect reference (as above).
        echo "String element VAR2: $VAR2 from STRING"

        # Print an array element
        TEST2="ARRAY21[*]"
        local ${!TEST2}      # Indirect reference (as above).
        echo "Array element VAR1_1: $VAR1_1 from ARRAY21"
}

print
echo

exit 0

#   As the author of the script notes,
#+ "you can easily expand it to create named-hashes in bash."
#   (Difficult) exercise for the reader: implement this.

--

Arrays enable implementing a shell script version of the Sieve of Eratosthenes. Of course, a resource-intensive application of this nature should really be written in a compiled language, such as C. It runs excruciatingly slowly as a script.

Example 26-8. Complex array application: Sieve of Eratosthenes

#!/bin/bash
# sieve.sh

# Sieve of Eratosthenes
# Ancient algorithm for finding prime numbers.

# This runs a couple of orders of magnitude
# slower than the equivalent C program.

LOWER_LIMIT=1       # Starting with 1.
UPPER_LIMIT=1000    # Up to 1000.
# (You may set this higher...  if you have time on your hands.)

PRIME=1
NON_PRIME=0

let SPLIT=UPPER_LIMIT/2
# Optimization:
# Need to test numbers only halfway to upper limit.


declare -a Primes
# Primes[] is an array.


initialize ()
{
# Initialize the array.

i=$LOWER_LIMIT
until [ "$i" -gt "$UPPER_LIMIT" ]
do
  Primes[i]=$PRIME
  let "i += 1"
done
# Assume all array members guilty (prime)
# until proven innocent.
}

print_primes ()
{
# Print out the members of the Primes[] array tagged as prime.

i=$LOWER_LIMIT

until [ "$i" -gt "$UPPER_LIMIT" ]
do

  if [ "${Primes[i]}" -eq "$PRIME" ]
  then
    printf "%8d" $i
    # 8 spaces per number gives nice, even columns.
  fi

  let "i += 1"

done

}

sift () # Sift out the non-primes.
{

let i=$LOWER_LIMIT+1
# We know 1 is prime, so let's start with 2.

until [ "$i" -gt "$UPPER_LIMIT" ]
do

if [ "${Primes[i]}" -eq "$PRIME" ]
# Don't bother sieving numbers already sieved (tagged as non-prime).
then

  t=$i

  while [ "$t" -le "$UPPER_LIMIT" ]
  do
    let "t += $i "
    Primes[t]=$NON_PRIME
    # Tag as non-prime all multiples.
  done

fi

  let "i += 1"
done


}


# Invoke the functions sequentially.
initialize
sift
print_primes
# This is what they call structured programming.

echo

exit 0



# ----------------------------------------------- #
# Code below line will not execute.

# This improved version of the Sieve, by Stephane Chazelas,
# executes somewhat faster.

# Must invoke with command-line argument (limit of primes).

UPPER_LIMIT=$1                  # From command line.
let SPLIT=UPPER_LIMIT/2         # Halfway to max number.

Primes=( '' $(seq $UPPER_LIMIT) )

i=1
until (( ( i += 1 ) > SPLIT ))  # Need check only halfway.
do
  if [[ -n $Primes[i] ]]
  then
    t=$i
    until (( ( t += i ) > UPPER_LIMIT ))
    do
      Primes[t]=
    done
  fi
done
echo ${Primes[*]}

exit 0

Compare this array-based prime number generator with an alternative that does not use arrays, Example A-17.

--

Arrays lend themselves, to some extent, to emulating data structures for which Bash has no native support.

Example 26-9. Emulating a push-down stack

#!/bin/bash
# stack.sh: push-down stack simulation

#  Similar to the CPU stack, a push-down stack stores data items
#+ sequentially, but releases them in reverse order, last-in first-out.

BP=100            # Base Pointer of stack array.
                  # Begin at element 100.

SP=$BP            # Stack Pointer.
                  # Initialize it to "base" (bottom) of stack.

Data=             # Contents of stack location.
                  #  Must use local variable,
                  #+ because of limitation on function return range.

declare -a stack


push()            # Push item on stack.
{
if [ -z "$1" ]    # Nothing to push?
then
  return
fi

let "SP -= 1"     # Bump stack pointer.
stack[$SP]=$1

return
}

pop()                    # Pop item off stack.
{
Data=                    # Empty out data item.

if [ "$SP" -eq "$BP" ]   # Stack empty?
then
  return
fi                       #  This also keeps SP from getting past 100,
                         #+ i.e., prevents a runaway stack.

Data=${stack[$SP]}
let "SP += 1"            # Bump stack pointer.
return
}

status_report()          # Find out what's happening.
{
echo "-------------------------------------"
echo "REPORT"
echo "Stack Pointer = $SP"
echo "Just popped \""$Data"\" off the stack."
echo "-------------------------------------"
echo
}


# =======================================================
# Now, for some fun.

echo

# See if you can pop anything off empty stack.
pop
status_report

echo

push garbage
pop
status_report     # Garbage in, garbage out.

value1=23; push $value1
value2=skidoo; push $value2
value3=FINAL; push $value3

pop              # FINAL
status_report
pop              # skidoo
status_report
pop              # 23
status_report    # Last-in, first-out!

#  Notice how the stack pointer decrements with each push,
#+ and increments with each pop.

echo
# =======================================================


# Exercises:
# ---------

# 1)  Modify the "push()" function to permit pushing
#   + multiple element on the stack with a single function call.

# 2)  Modify the "pop()" function to permit popping
#   + multiple element from the stack with a single function call.

# 3)  Using this script as a jumping-off point,
#   + write a stack-based 4-function calculator.

exit 0

--

Fancy manipulation of array "subscripts" may require intermediate variables. For projects involving this, again consider using a more powerful programming language, such as Perl or C.

Example 26-10. Complex array application: Exploring a weird mathematical series

#!/bin/bash

# Douglas Hofstadter's notorious "Q-series":

# Q(1) = Q(2) = 1
# Q(n) = Q(n - Q(n-1)) + Q(n - Q(n-2)), for n>2

# This is a "chaotic" integer series with strange and unpredictable behavior.
# The first 20 terms of the series are:
# 1 1 2 3 3 4 5 5 6 6 6 8 8 8 10 9 10 11 11 12

# See Hofstadter's book, "Goedel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Braid",
# p. 137, ff.


LIMIT=100     # Number of terms to calculate
LINEWIDTH=20  # Number of terms printed per line

Q[1]=1        # First two terms of series are 1.
Q[2]=1

echo
echo "Q-series [$LIMIT terms]:"
echo -n "${Q[1]} "             # Output first two terms.
echo -n "${Q[2]} "

for ((n=3; n <= $LIMIT; n++))  # C-like loop conditions.
do   # Q[n] = Q[n - Q[n-1]] + Q[n - Q[n-2]]  for n>2
# Need to break the expression into intermediate terms,
# since Bash doesn't handle complex array arithmetic very well.

  let "n1 = $n - 1"        # n-1
  let "n2 = $n - 2"        # n-2

  t0=`expr $n - ${Q[n1]}`  # n - Q[n-1]
  t1=`expr $n - ${Q[n2]}`  # n - Q[n-2]

  T0=${Q[t0]}              # Q[n - Q[n-1]]
  T1=${Q[t1]}              # Q[n - Q[n-2]]

Q[n]=`expr $T0 + $T1`      # Q[n - Q[n-1]] + Q[n - Q[n-2]]
echo -n "${Q[n]} "

if [ `expr $n % $LINEWIDTH` -eq 0 ]    # Format output.
then   #     mod
  echo # Break lines into neat chunks.
fi

done

echo

exit 0

# This is an iterative implementation of the Q-series.
# The more intuitive recursive implementation is left as an exercise.
# Warning: calculating this series recursively takes a *very* long time.

--

Bash supports only one-dimensional arrays, however a little trickery permits simulating multi-dimensional ones.

Example 26-11. Simulating a two-dimensional array, then tilting it

#!/bin/bash
# Simulating a two-dimensional array.

# A two-dimensional array stores rows sequentially.

Rows=5
Columns=5

declare -a alpha     # char alpha [Rows] [Columns];
                     # Unnecessary declaration.

load_alpha ()
{
local rc=0
local index


for i in A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y
do
  local row=`expr $rc / $Columns`
  local column=`expr $rc % $Rows`
  let "index = $row * $Rows + $column"
  alpha[$index]=$i   # alpha[$row][$column]
  let "rc += 1"
done

# Simpler would be
#   declare -a alpha=( A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y )
# but this somehow lacks the "flavor" of a two-dimensional array.
}

print_alpha ()
{
local row=0
local index

echo

while [ "$row" -lt "$Rows" ]   # Print out in "row major" order -
do                             # columns vary
                               # while row (outer loop) remains the same.
  local column=0

  while [ "$column" -lt "$Columns" ]
  do
    let "index = $row * $Rows + $column"
    echo -n "${alpha[index]} "  # alpha[$row][$column]
    let "column += 1"
  done

  let "row += 1"
  echo

done

# The simpler equivalent is
#   echo ${alpha[*]} | xargs -n $Columns

echo
}

filter ()     # Filter out negative array indices.
{

echo -n "  "  # Provides the tilt.

if [[ "$1" -ge 0 &&  "$1" -lt "$Rows" && "$2" -ge 0 && "$2" -lt "$Columns" ]]
then
    let "index = $1 * $Rows + $2"
    # Now, print it rotated.
    echo -n " ${alpha[index]}"  # alpha[$row][$column]
fi

}




rotate ()  # Rotate the array 45 degrees
{          # ("balance" it on its lower lefthand corner).
local row
local column

for (( row = Rows; row > -Rows; row-- ))  # Step through the array backwards.
do

  for (( column = 0; column < Columns; column++ ))
  do

    if [ "$row" -ge 0 ]
    then
      let "t1 = $column - $row"
      let "t2 = $column"
    else
      let "t1 = $column"
      let "t2 = $column + $row"
    fi

    filter $t1 $t2   # Filter out negative array indices.
  done

  echo; echo

done

# Array rotation inspired by examples (pp. 143-146) in
# "Advanced C Programming on the IBM PC", by Herbert Mayer
# (see bibliography).

}


#-----------------------------------------------------#
load_alpha     # Load the array.
print_alpha    # Print it out.
rotate         # Rotate it 45 degrees counterclockwise.
#-----------------------------------------------------#


# This is a rather contrived, not to mention kludgy simulation.
#
# Exercises:
# ---------
# 1)  Rewrite the array loading and printing functions
#   + in a more intuitive and elegant fashion.
#
# 2)  Figure out how the array rotation functions work.
#     Hint: think about the implications of backwards-indexing an array.

exit 0

A two-dimensional array is essentially equivalent to a one-dimensional one, but with additional addressing modes for referencing and manipulating the individual elements by "row" and "column" position.

For an even more elaborate example of simulating a two-dimensional array, see Example A-11.